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Knowledge management

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Content_management" title="Content management">Content management</a> or <a href="Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_library_and_information_science" title="Outline of library and information science">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_library_and_information_science" title="Glossary of library and information science">Glossary</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;">

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Focus</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="Archives_management" title="Archives management">Archives management</a> - <a href="Collections_management" title="Collections management">Collections management</a> (<a href="Preservation_(library_and_archive)" title="Preservation (library and archive)">Preservation</a>) - <a href="Data_management" title="Data management">Data management</a> - <a href="Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a> (<a href="Cataloging_(library_science)" title="Cataloging (library science)">cataloguing</a>) - - <a href="Library_management" title="Library management">Library management</a></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Curation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="Data" title="Data">Data</a> - <a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a> - <a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a> - <a href="Document" title="Document">Documents</a> - <a href="Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Artefacts</a> - <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Interdisciplinary fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> - <a href="Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a> - <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> - <a href="Data_science" title="Data science">Data science</a> - <a href="Documentation_science" title="Documentation science">Documentation science</a> - <a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> - <a href="Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">Library science</a> - <a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a> - <a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Areas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="Academic_library" title="Academic library">Academic</a> - <a href="Archive" title="Archive">Archival</a> - <a href="Law_library" title="Law library">Legal</a> - <a href="Medical_library" title="Medical library">Health</a> - <a href="Private_library" title="Private library">Private</a> - <a href="Public_library" title="Public library">Public</a> - <a href="School_library" title="School library">School</a> - <a href="Special_library" title="Special library">Special</a></div></div></td>

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Knowledge management (KM) is the set of procedures for producing, disseminating, utilizing, and overseeing an organization's knowledge and data. It alludes to a multidisciplinary strategy that maximizes knowledge utilization to accomplish organizational goals. Courses in business administration, information systems, management, libraries, and information science are all part of knowledge management, a discipline that has been around since 1991. Information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy are some of the other disciplines that may contribute to KM research. Numerous academic institutions provide master's degrees specifically focused on knowledge management.

As a component of their IT, human resource management, or business strategy departments, many large corporations, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations have resources devoted to internal knowledge management initiatives. These organizations receive KM guidance from a number of consulting firms. Organizational goals including enhanced performance, competitive advantage, innovation, sharing of lessons learned, integration, and ongoing organizational improvement are usually the focus of knowledge management initiatives. These initiatives are similar to organizational learning, but they can be differentiated by their increased emphasis on knowledge management as a strategic asset and information sharing. Organizational learning is facilitated by knowledge management.

The setting of <a href="Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">supply chain</a> may be the most challenging situation for knowledge management since it involves several businesses without a hierarchy or ownership tie; some authors refer to this type of knowledge as transorganizational or interorganizational knowledge. <a href="Industry_4.0" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry 4.0">industry 4.0</a> (or <a href="Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4th industrial revolution</a>) and <a href="Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">digital transformation</a> also add to that complexity, as new issues arise from the volume and speed of information flows and knowledge generation.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

Knowledge management efforts have a long history, including on-the-job discussions, formal <a href="Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a>, <a href="Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">discussion forums</a>, corporate libraries, professional training, and mentoring programs.<a href="#cite_note-2UNC-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-1Sanchez-2">[2]</a> With increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as <a href="Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge bases</a>, <a href="Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert systems</a>, <a href="Information_repository" title="Information repository">information repositories</a>, group <a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">decision support systems</a>, <a href="Intranet" title="Intranet">intranets</a>, and <a href="Computer-supported_cooperative_work" title="Computer-supported cooperative work">computer-supported cooperative work</a> have been introduced to further enhance such efforts.<a href="#cite_note-2UNC-1">[1]</a>

In 1999, the term <a href="Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">personal knowledge management</a> was introduced; it refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level.<a href="#cite_note-48Wright-3">[3]</a>

In the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognised the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, <a href="Business_process" title="Business process">process</a> and <a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25Booker-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-35Morey-5">[5]</a> Key lessons learned include people and the cultural norms which influence their behaviors are the most critical resources for successful knowledge creation, dissemination and application; cognitive, social and organisational learning processes are essential to the success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, <a href="Benchmarking" title="Benchmarking">benchmarking</a> and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change.<a href="#cite_note-35Morey-5">[5]</a> In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organisations if they are purposeful, concrete and action-orientated.

The <a href="ISO_9001" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 9001">ISO 9001:2015 quality management standard</a> released in September 2015 introduced a specification for 'organizational knowledge' as a complementary aspect of quality management within an organisation.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div>

KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-34JAS-7">[7]</a> It was initially supported by individual practitioners, when <a href="Skandia" title="Skandia">Skandia</a> hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world's first <a href="Chief_knowledge_officer" title="Chief knowledge officer">chief knowledge officer</a> (CKO).<a href="#cite_note-6KU-8">[8]</a> Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of <a href="Canadian_Imperial_Bank_of_Commerce" title="Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce">CIBC</a>, Canada), started investigating KM long before that.<a href="#cite_note-2UNC-1">[1]</a> The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximise the intangible assets of their organizations.<a href="#cite_note-2UNC-1">[1]</a> Gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed.<a href="#cite_note-10Bray-9">[9]</a> The KM idea has been taken up by academics, such as <a href="Ikujiro_Nonaka" title="Ikujiro Nonaka">Ikujiro Nonaka</a> (<a href="Hitotsubashi_University" title="Hitotsubashi University">Hitotsubashi University</a>), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), <a href="Thomas_H._Davenport" title="Thomas H. Davenport">Thomas H. Davenport</a> (<a href="Babson_College" title="Babson College">Babson College</a>) and Baruch Lev (<a href="New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>).<a href="#cite_note-37HBR-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-27Davenport-11">[11]</a>

In 2001, <a href="Thomas_A._Stewart" title="Thomas A. Stewart">Thomas A. Stewart</a>, former editor at <a href="Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)">Fortune</a> magazine and subsequently the editor of <a href="Harvard_Business_Review" title="Harvard Business Review">Harvard Business Review</a>, published a cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital in organizations.<a href="#cite_note-57Stewart-12">[12]</a> The KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity.<a href="#cite_note-2UNC-1">[1]</a> First, is a trend toward higher cooperation among academics; single-author publications are less common. Second, the role of practitioners has changed.<a href="#cite_note-10Bray-9">[9]</a> Their contribution to academic research declined from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009.<a href="#cite_note-44Serenko-13">[13]</a> Third, the number of academic knowledge management journals has been steadily growing, currently reaching 27 outlets.<a href="#cite_note-45Serenko-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-50Serenko-15">[15]</a>

Multiple KM disciplines exist; approaches vary by author and school.<a href="#cite_note-10Bray-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-51PPH-16">[16]</a> As the discipline matured, academic debates increased regarding <a href="Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> and practice, including:

<ul><li>Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance <a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">knowledge sharing</a> and creation.<a href="#cite_note-19Harv-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-54Springer-18">[18]</a></li>

<li>Organisational with a focus on how an organisation can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best.<a href="#cite_note-18Addicot-19">[19]</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_ecosystem" title="Knowledge ecosystem">Ecological</a> with a focus on the interaction of people, <a href="Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a>, knowledge, and environmental factors as a <a href="Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">complex adaptive system</a> akin to a natural <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8Bray-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-53rst-21">[21]</a></li></ul>

Regardless of the <a href="School_of_thought" title="School of thought">school of thought</a>, core components of KM roughly include people/culture, processes/structure and technology. The details depend on the <a href="Perspective_(cognitive)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (cognitive)">perspective</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> KM perspectives include:

<ul><li><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">community of practice</a><a href="#cite_note-3Teacher-23">[23]</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">social network analysis</a><a href="#cite_note-4Groth-24">[24]</a></li>

<li><a href="Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">intellectual capital</a><a href="#cite_note-24Bontis-25">[25]</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a><a href="#cite_note-34JAS-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-6KU-8">[8]</a></li>

<li><a href="Complexity_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Complexity science">complexity science</a><a href="#cite_note-7Snowden-26">[26]</a></li>

<li>constructivism<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-9citeseer-28">[28]</a></li></ul>

The practical relevance of academic research in KM has been questioned<a href="#cite_note-28Ferg-29">[29]</a> with <a href="Action_research" title="Action research">action research</a> suggested as having more relevance<a href="#cite_note-21TLO-30">[30]</a> and the need to translate the findings presented in academic journals to a practice.<a href="#cite_note-25Booker-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimensions">Dimensions</h3></div>

Different <a href="Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">frameworks</a> for distinguishing between different 'types of' knowledge exist.<a href="#cite_note-1Sanchez-2">[2]</a> One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes <a href="Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">tacit knowledge</a> and <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">explicit knowledge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7Snowden-26">[26]</a> Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of, such as to accomplish particular tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others.<a href="#cite_note-10Bray-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-20Alavi-31">[31]</a>

Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model (<a href="SECI_model_of_knowledge_dimensions" title="SECI model of knowledge dimensions">SECI</a>, for Socialisation, Externalisation, Combination, Internalisation) which considers a spiraling interaction between <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">explicit knowledge</a> and tacit knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-38Nonaka-32">[32]</a> In this model, knowledge follows a cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 're-internalised' into implicit knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-38Nonaka-32">[32]</a>

Hayes and Walsham (2003) describe knowledge and knowledge management as two different perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-11Hayes-33">[33]</a> The content perspective suggests that knowledge is easily stored; because it may be codified, while the relational perspective recognises the contextual and relational aspects of knowledge which can make knowledge difficult to share outside the specific context in which it is developed.<a href="#cite_note-11Hayes-33">[33]</a>

Early research suggested that KM needs to convert internalised tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge to share it, and the same effort must permit individuals to internalise and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort.<a href="#cite_note-18Addicot-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-55RST-34">[34]</a>

Subsequent research suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory.<a href="#cite_note-48Wright-3">[3]</a> Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., <a href="Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> outside our heads).<a href="#cite_note-48Wright-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> More recently, together with <a href="Georg_von_Krogh" title="Georg von Krogh">Georg von Krogh</a> and <a href="Sven_Voelpel" title="Sven Voelpel">Sven Voelpel</a>, Nonaka returned to his earlier work in an attempt to move the debate about knowledge conversion forward.<a href="#cite_note-39Nonaka-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

A second proposed framework for categorising knowledge dimensions distinguishes embedded knowledge of a <a href="System" title="System">system</a> outside a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) from <a href="Embodied_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Embodied knowledge">embodied knowledge</a> representing a learned capability of a human body's <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous</a> and <a href="Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40Sensky-38">[38]</a>

A third proposed framework distinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the <a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">transfer</a> or exploitation of "established knowledge" within a group, organisation, or community.<a href="#cite_note-11Hayes-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-12Bray-39">[39]</a> Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of <a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">social computing</a> tools can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer.<a href="#cite_note-12Bray-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategies">Strategies</h3></div>

Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities.<a href="#cite_note-24Bontis-25">[25]</a> Organisations have tried knowledge capture <a href="Incentive" title="Incentive">incentives</a>, including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into <a href="Performance_measurement" title="Performance measurement">performance measurement</a> plans.<a href="#cite_note-23MIS-40">[40]</a> Considerable controversy exists over whether such incentives work and no consensus has emerged.<a href="#cite_note-16Gupta-41">[41]</a>

One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy).<a href="#cite_note-16Gupta-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-13Rathau-42">[42]</a> In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a <a href="Database" title="Database">database</a>, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided (codification).<a href="#cite_note-13Rathau-42">[42]</a> Another strategy involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy).<a href="#cite_note-16Gupta-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-13Rathau-42">[42]</a> In such an instance, expert individual(s) provide insights to requestor (personalisation).<a href="#cite_note-7Snowden-26">[26]</a> When talking about strategic knowledge management, the form of the knowledge and activities to share it defines the concept between codification and personalization.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The form of the knowledge means that it's either <a href="Tacit" class="mw-redirect" title="Tacit">tacit</a> or <a href="Explicit_knowledge" title="Explicit knowledge">explicit</a>. <a href="Data" title="Data">Data</a> and <a href="Information" title="Information">information</a> can be considered as explicit and <a href="Know-how" class="mw-redirect" title="Know-how">know-how</a> can be considered as tacit.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<a href="Morten_Hansen" title="Morten Hansen">Hansen</a> et al. defined the two strategies (codification and personalisation).<a href="#cite_note-auto-45">[45]</a> Codification means a system-oriented method in KM strategy for managing explicit knowledge with organizational objectives.<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-46">[46]</a> Codification strategy is document-centered strategy, where knowledge is mainly codified as "people-to-document" method. Codification relies on information infrastructure, where explicit knowledge is carefully codified and stored.<a href="#cite_note-auto-45">[45]</a> Codification focuses on collecting and storing codified knowledge in electronic databases to make it accessible.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2004,_p._7-47">[47]</a> Codification can therefore refer to both tacit and explicit knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In contrast, personalisation encourages individuals to share their knowledge directly.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2004,_p._7-47">[47]</a> Personification means human-oriented KM strategy where the target is to improve knowledge flows through networking and integrations related to tacit knowledge with knowledge sharing and creation.<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-46">[46]</a> Information technology plays a less important role, as it only facilitates communication and knowledge sharing.

Generic knowledge strategies include <a href="Knowledge_acquisition" title="Knowledge acquisition">knowledge acquisition</a> strategy, knowledge exploitation strategy, knowledge exploration strategy, and <a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">knowledge sharing</a> strategy. These strategies aim at helping organisations to increase their knowledge and <a href="Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive advantage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

Other knowledge management strategies and instruments for companies include:<a href="#cite_note-16Gupta-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-8Bray-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-7Snowden-26">[26]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">Knowledge sharing</a> (fostering a culture that encourages the sharing of information, based on the concept that knowledge is not irrevocable and should be shared and updated to remain relevant)

<ul><li>Make knowledge-sharing a key role in employees' job description</li>

<li>Inter-project knowledge transfer</li>

<li>Intra-organisational knowledge sharing</li>

<li>Inter-organisational knowledge sharing</li>

<li>Knowledge retention also known as Knowledge Continuation: activities addressing the challenge of knowledge loss as a result of people leaving<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Levy2011-52">[52]</a></li>

<li>Mapping knowledge competencies, roles and identifying current or future predicted gaps.</li>

<li>Defining for each chosen role the main knowledge that should be retained, and building rituals in which the knowledge is documented or transferred on, from the day they start their job.</li>

<li>Transfer of knowledge and information prior to employee departure by means of sharing documents, shadowing, mentoring, and more,</li></ul></li>

<li>Proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)</li>

<li><a href="Storytelling" title="Storytelling">Storytelling</a> (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)</li>

<li>Cross-project learning</li>

<li><a href="After_action_review" class="mw-redirect" title="After action review">After-action reviews</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge mapping">Knowledge mapping</a> requires the organization to know what kind of knowledge organization it has, how it is distributed throughout the company, and how to efficiently use and re-use that knowledge. (a map of knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all)</li>

<li><a href="Communities_of_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities of practice">Communities of practice</a></li>

<li>Expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts)</li>

<li><a href="Expert_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Expert Systems">Expert systems</a> (knowledge seeker responds to one or more specific questions to reach knowledge in a repository)</li>

<li><a href="Best_practice" title="Best practice">Best practice</a> transfer</li>

<li>Knowledge fairs</li>

<li>Competency-based management (systematic evaluation and planning of knowledge related competences of individual organisation members)</li>

<li>Master–apprentice relationship, Mentor-mentee relationship, <a href="Job_shadow" title="Job shadow">job shadowing</a></li>

<li><a href="Collaborative_software" title="Collaborative software">Collaborative software</a> technologies (<a href="Wiki" title="Wiki">wikis</a>, shared bookmarking, blogs, <a href="Social_software" title="Social software">social software</a>, etc.)</li>

<li>Knowledge repositories (<a href="Database" title="Database">databases</a>, <a href="Enterprise_bookmarking" title="Enterprise bookmarking">bookmarking engines</a>, etc.)</li>

<li>Measuring and reporting <a href="Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">intellectual capital</a> (a way of making explicit knowledge for companies)</li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_broker" title="Knowledge broker">Knowledge brokers</a> (some organisational members take on responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on a specific subject)</li>

<li>Knowledge farming (using <a href="Note-taking" title="Note-taking">note-taking</a> software to cultivate a <a href="Knowledge_graph" title="Knowledge graph">knowledge graph</a>, part of knowledge agriculture)</li>

<li>Knowledge capturing (refers to a process where trained people extract valuable or else desired knowledge from experts and embed it in databases)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivations">Motivations</h3></div>

Multiple motivations lead organisations to undertake KM.<a href="#cite_note-20Alavi-31">[31]</a> Typical considerations include:<a href="#cite_note-7Snowden-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

<ul><li>Making available increased knowledge content in the <a href="New_product_development" title="New product development">development</a> and provision of <a href="Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a> and <a href="Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a></li>

<li>Achieving shorter development cycles</li>

<li>Improving consistency of knowledge and standardized expert skills among staff</li>

<li>Facilitating and managing innovation and organisational learning</li>

<li>Leveraging <a href="Expert" title="Expert">expertise</a> across the organisation</li>

<li>Increasing <a href="Social_network" title="Social network">network</a> <a href="Interconnectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Interconnectivity">connectivity</a> between internal and external individuals</li>

<li>Managing business environments and allowing employees to obtain relevant insights and ideas appropriate to their work</li>

<li>Solving intractable or <a href="Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">wicked problems</a></li>

<li>Managing intellectual capital and assets in the workforce (such as the expertise and <a href="Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">know-how</a> possessed by key individuals or stored in repositories)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="KM_technologies">KM technologies</h2></div>

Knowledge management (KM) technology can be categorised:

<ul><li><a href="Collaborative_software" title="Collaborative software">Collaborative software</a>(<a href="Groupware" class="mw-redirect" title="Groupware">Groupware</a>)—Software that facilitates collaboration and sharing of organisational information. Such applications provide tools for <a href="Threaded_discussion" class="mw-redirect" title="Threaded discussion">threaded discussions</a>, <a href="Document_sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="Document sharing">document sharing</a>, organisation-wide uniform email, and other collaboration-related features.</li>

<li><a href="Workflow_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Workflow system">Workflow systems</a>—Systems that allow the representation of processes associated with the creation, use and maintenance of organisational knowledge, such as the process of creating and utilise forms and documents.</li>

<li><a href="Content_management" title="Content management">Content management</a> and <a href="Document_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Document management">document management</a> systems—Software systems that automate the process of creating web content and/or documents. Roles such as editors, graphic designers, writers and producers can be explicitly modeled along with the tasks in the process and validation criteria. Commercial vendors started either to support documents or to support web content but as the Internet grew these functions merged and vendors now perform both functions.</li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_portal" title="Enterprise portal">Enterprise portals</a>—Software that aggregates information across the entire organisation or for groups such as project teams.</li>

<li><a href="ELearning" class="mw-redirect" title="ELearning">eLearning</a>—Software that enables organisations to create customised training and education. This can include lesson plans, monitoring progress and online classes.</li>

<li>Planning and <a href="Appointment_scheduling_software" title="Appointment scheduling software">scheduling software</a>—Software that automates schedule creation and maintenance. The planning aspect can be integrated with <a href="Project_management_software" title="Project management software">project management software</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19Harv-17">[17]</a></li>

<li><a href="Telepresence" title="Telepresence">Telepresence</a>—Software that enables individuals to have virtual "face-to-face" meetings without assembling at one location. Videoconferencing is the most obvious example.</li>

<li><a href="Semantic_technology" title="Semantic technology">Semantic technology</a> such as <a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontologies</a>—Systems that encode meaning alongside data to give machines the ability to extract and infer information.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></li></ul>

These categories overlap. Workflow, for example, is a significant aspect of content or document management systems, most of which have tools for developing enterprise portals.<a href="#cite_note-16Gupta-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

Proprietary KM technology products such as <a href="HCL_Notes" title="HCL Notes">HCL Notes</a> (Previously Lotus Notes) defined proprietary formats for email, documents, forms, etc. The Internet drove most vendors to adopt Internet formats. <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source</a> and <a href="Freeware" title="Freeware">freeware</a> tools for the creation of <a href="Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a> and <a href="Wiki" title="Wiki">wikis</a> now enable capabilities that used to require expensive commercial tools.<a href="#cite_note-21TLO-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-22Andrus-56">[56]</a>

KM is driving the adoption of tools that enable organisations to work at the semantic level,<a href="#cite_note-26Cap-57">[57]</a> as part of the <a href="Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Some commentators have argued that after many years the Semantic Web has failed to see widespread adoption,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> while other commentators have argued that it has been a success.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge_barriers">Knowledge barriers</h2></div>

Just like knowledge transfer and knowledge sharing, the term "knowledge barriers" is not a uniformly defined term and differs in its meaning depending on the author.<a href="#cite_note-PaulinandSuneson2011-63">[63]</a> Knowledge barriers can be associated with high costs for both companies and individuals.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Riege2005-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

Knowledge barriers appear to have been used from at least three different perspectives in the literature:<a href="#cite_note-PaulinandSuneson2011-63">[63]</a>

1) Missing knowledge about something as a result of barriers for the share or transfer of knowledge.

2) Insufficient knowledge based on the amount of education in a certain field or issue.

3) A unique individual or group of humans' perceptual system lacks adequate contact points or does not fit incoming information to use and transform it to knowledge.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge_retention">Knowledge retention</h2></div>

Knowledge retention is part of knowledge management. It helps convert tacit form of knowledge into an explicit form. It is a complex process which aims to reduce the knowledge loss in the organization.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Knowledge retention is needed when expert knowledge workers leave the organization after a long career.<a href="#cite_note-:0-68">[68]</a> Retaining knowledge prevents losing intellectual capital.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

According to DeLong(2004) <a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> knowledge retention strategies are divided into four main categories:

<ul><li>Human resources, processes and practices</li>

<li>Knowledge transfer practices</li>

<li>Knowledge recovery practices</li>

<li>Information technologies used to capture, store and share knowledge.</li></ul>

Knowledge retention projects are usually introduced in three stages: decision making, planning and implementation. There are differences among researchers on the terms of the stages. For example, Dalkir talks about knowledge capture, sharing and acquisition and Doan et al. introduces initiation, implementation and evaluation.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Furthermore, Levy introduces three steps (scope, transfer, integration) but also recognizes a "zero stage" for initiation of the project.<a href="#cite_note-:0-68">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge_audit">Knowledge audit</h2></div>

A knowledge audit is a comprehensive assessment of an organization's knowledge assets, including its explicit and tacit knowledge, intellectual capital, expertise, and skills. The goal of a knowledge audit is to identify the organization's knowledge strengths and gaps, and to develop strategies for leveraging knowledge to improve performance and competitiveness. Knowledge audit helps ensure that an organization's knowledge management activities are heading in the right direction. It also reduces the making of incorrect decisions. Term knowledge audit is often used interchangeably with information audit, although information audit is slightly narrower in scope.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>

The requirement and significance of a knowledge audit can vary widely among different industries and companies. For instance, within the software development industry, knowledge audits can play a pivotal role due to the inherently knowledge-intensive nature of the work. This contrasts with sectors like manufacturing, where physical assets often take more important role. The difference arises from the fact that in software development companies, the skills, expertise, and intellectual capital, often overshadow the value of physical assets.<a href="#cite_note-Hand2019-75">[75]</a>

Knowledge audits provide opportunities for organizations to improve their management of knowledge assets, with the goal of enhancing organizational effectiveness and efficiency. By conducting a knowledge audit, organizations can raise awareness of knowledge assets as primary factors of production and as critical capital assets in today's knowledge economy. The process of a knowledge audit allows organizations to gain a deeper understanding of their knowledge assets. This includes identifying and defining these assets, understanding their behavior and properties, and describing how, when, why, and where they are used in business processes.<a href="#cite_note-Hand2019-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge_protection">Knowledge protection</h2></div>

Knowledge protection refers to behaviors and actions taken to protect the knowledge from unwanted opportunistic behavior for example appropriation or imitation of the knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>

Knowledge protection is used to prevent the knowledge to be unintentionally available or useful for competitors. Knowledge protection can be for example a patent, copyright, trademark, lead time or secrecy held by a company or an individual.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_protection_methods">Knowledge protection methods</h3></div>

There are various methods for knowledge protection and those methods are often divided into two categories by their formality: formal protection and informal protection.<a href="#cite_note-gast2019-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-ws2023-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-bolisani2013-81">[81]</a> Occasionally a third category is introduced, semi-formal protection, which includes contracts and trade-secrets.<a href="#cite_note-ws2023-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-bolisani2013-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-stefan2017-82">[82]</a>  These semi-formal methods are also usually placed under formal methods.

Organizations often use a combination of formal and informal knowledge protection methods to achieve comprehensive protection of their knowledge assets.<a href="#cite_note-bolisani2013-81">[81]</a> The formal and informal knowledge protection mechanisms are different in nature, and they have their benefits and drawbacks. In many organizations, the challenge is to find a good mix of measures that works for the organization.<a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Formal_methods">Formal methods</h4></div>

Formal knowledge protection practices can take various forms, such as legal instruments or formal procedures and structures, to control which knowledge is shared and which is protected.<a href="#cite_note-gast2019-78">[78]</a> Formal knowledge protection methods include for example: patents, trademarks, copyrights and licensing.<a href="#cite_note-gast2019-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ws2023-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-estrada2016-83">[83]</a>

Technical solutions to protect the knowledge fall also under the category of formal knowledge protection. Formal knowledge protection from technical viewpoint includes technical access constraints and protection of communication channels, systems, and storage.<a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a>

While knowledge may eventually become public in some form or another, formal protection mechanisms are necessary to prevent competitors from directly utilizing it for their own gain.<a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a> Formal protection methods are particularly effective in protecting established knowledge that can be codified and embodied in final products or services.<a href="#cite_note-estrada2016-83">[83]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Informal_methods">Informal methods</h4></div>

Informal knowledge protection methods refer to the use of informal mechanisms such as human resource management practices or secrecy to protect knowledge assets. There is notable amount of knowledge that cannot be protected by formal methods, and for which more informal protection might be the most efficient option.<a href="#cite_note-olander2014-84">[84]</a>

Informal knowledge protection methods can take various forms, such as: secrecy, social norms and values, complexity, lead-time and Human resource management.<a href="#cite_note-gast2019-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-estrada2016-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-telg2023-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-olander2014-84">[84]</a>

Informal knowledge protection methods protect knowledge assets for example by making it difficult for outsiders to access and understand the knowledge within the boundaries of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-telg2023-85">[85]</a> Informal protection methods are more effective for protecting knowledge that is complex or difficult to express, articulate, or codify.<a href="#cite_note-telg2023-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-olander2014-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balancing_knowledge_protection_and_knowledge_sharing">Balancing knowledge protection and knowledge sharing</h3></div>

The balance between knowledge sharing and knowledge protection is a critical dilemma faced by organizations today.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a> While sharing knowledge can lead to innovation, collaboration, and competitive advantage, protecting knowledge can prevent it from being misused, misappropriated, or lost.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-87">[87]</a> Thus, the need for organizational learning must be balanced with the need to protect organisations' intellectual property, especially whilst cooperating with external partners.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> The role of information security is crucial in helping organisations protect their assets whilst still enabling the benefits of information sharing.<a href="#cite_note-:2-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-87">[87]</a> By implementing effective knowledge management strategies, organizations can protect valuable <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> while also encouraging the sharing of relevant knowledge across teams and departments.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a> This active balancing act requires careful consideration of factors such as the level of openness, the identification of core knowledge areas, and the establishment of appropriate mechanisms for knowledge transfer and collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a> Finding the right balance between knowledge sharing and knowledge protection is a complex issue that requires a nuanced understanding of the trade-off's involved and the context in which knowledge is shared or protected.<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_protection_risks">Knowledge protection risks</h3></div>

Protecting knowledge cannot be considered without its risks. Here are listed four of the major risks associated with knowledge protection:

<ul><li>Overprotection: One of the major risks of knowledge protection is overprotection. Overprotection occurs when intellectual property rights are too broad or too strict, preventing others from building upon existing ideas and stifling innovation. As noted by Rouyre and Fernandez,<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> overprotection can have a chilling effect on follow-on innovation, which is particularly problematic in fields where innovation is cumulative.</li>

<li>Misappropriation: Another risk associated with knowledge protection is misappropriation. Misappropriation refers to the unauthorized use or theft of intellectual property. This can occur when confidential information is leaked, trade secrets are stolen, or patents are infringed upon. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization,<a href="#cite_note-WIPO_2019-90">[90]</a> misappropriation can result in significant financial losses for individuals and organizations.</li>

<li>Infringement claims: Intellectual property owners can also face risks associated with infringement claims. Infringement occurs when someone uses intellectual property without permission or authorization, and the owner of the intellectual property files a lawsuit. Infringement claims can be costly and time-consuming and can result in damage to an individual's or organization's reputation. As noted by Law Insider's Knowledge of infringement Sample Clauses,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> infringement claims can also result in financial penalties and even criminal prosecution.</li>

<li>Inadequate protection: Inadequate protection of intellectual property is also a significant risk. This occurs when intellectual property owners fail to properly protect their knowledge, such as by failing to obtain patents, trademarks, or copyrights. Inadequate protection can result in the loss of intellectual property rights and can make it difficult for individuals and organizations to enforce their rights in court. As noted by the WIPO,<a href="#cite_note-WIPO_2019-90">[90]</a> inadequate protection can also make it easier for others to copy or steal intellectual property.</li></ul>

In conclusion, protecting knowledge is crucial to promote innovation and creativity, but it is not without its risks. Overprotection, misappropriation, infringement claims, and inadequate protection are all risks associated with knowledge protection. Individuals and organizations should take steps to protect their intellectual property while also considering the potential risks and benefits of such protection.

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<ul><li><a href="Archives_management" title="Archives management">Archives management</a></li>

<li><a href="Customer_knowledge" title="Customer knowledge">Customer knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_knowledge_repository" title="Dynamic knowledge repository">Dynamic knowledge repository</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management">Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Ignorance_management" title="Ignorance management">Ignorance management</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_governance" title="Information governance">Information governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Journal of Knowledge Management">Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Knowledge_Management_Practice" title="Journal of Knowledge Management Practice">Journal of Knowledge Management Practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_cafe" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge cafe">Knowledge cafe</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_community" title="Knowledge community">Knowledge community</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_ecosystem" title="Knowledge ecosystem">Knowledge ecosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_engineering" title="Knowledge engineering">Knowledge engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_management_software" title="Knowledge management software">Knowledge management software</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_modeling" title="Knowledge modeling">Knowledge modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">Knowledge transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_translation" title="Knowledge translation">Knowledge translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_case_management" title="Legal case management">Legal case management</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">Personal knowledge management</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-11Hayes-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-11Hayes_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Hayes_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Hayes_33-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFHayesWalsham2003" class="citation book cs1">Hayes, M.; Walsham, G. (2003). "Knowledge sharing and ICTs: A relational perspective". In Easterby-Smith, M.; Lyles, M.A. (eds.). The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 54–77. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-22672-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Levy2011-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Levy2011_52-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLevy2011" class="citation journal cs1">Levy, Moria (2011). "Knowledge retention: minimizing organizational business loss". Journal of Knowledge Management. 15 (4): 582–600. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F13673271111151974">10.1108/13673271111151974</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1367-3270">1367-3270</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsflow.com/blog/knowledge-management-in-manufacturing-why-is-it-so-important">"Managing knowledge in manufacturing"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220819022610/https://nsflow.com/blog/knowledge-management-in-manufacturing-why-is-it-so-important">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-08-19. Retrieved 2022-08-02.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDaviesGrobelnikMladenić2009" class="citation book cs1">Davies, John; Grobelnik, Marko; Mladenić, Dunja, eds. (2009). Semantic Knowledge Management: Integrating Ontology Management, Knowledge Discovery, and Human Language Technologies. Berlin: <a href="Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-88845-1">10.1007/978-3-540-88845-1</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783540888444</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/312625476">312625476</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRao2005" class="citation book cs1">Rao, Madanmohan (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/knowledgemanagem00raom">Knowledge Management Tools and Techniques</a>. Elsevier. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/knowledgemanagem00raom/page/n23">3</a>–42. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7506-7818-6</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-22Andrus-56"><a href="#cite_ref-22Andrus_56-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCalvin2005" class="citation journal cs1">Calvin, D. Andrus (2005). "The Wiki and the Blog: Toward a Complex Adaptive Intelligence Community". Studies in Intelligence. 49 (3). <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=755904">755904</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-26Cap-57"><a href="#cite_ref-26Cap_57-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCapozzi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Capozzi, Marla M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v12i6.1871">"Knowledge Management Architectures Beyond Technology"</a>. First Monday. 12 (6). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v12i6.1871">10.5210/fm.v12i6.1871</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBerners-LeeHendlerLassila2001" class="citation journal cs1">Berners-Lee, Tim; Hendler, James; Lassila, Ora (May 17, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130424071228/http://www.cs.umd.edu/~golbeck/LBSC690/SemanticWeb.html">"The Semantic Web A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities"</a>. Scientific American. 284 (5): 34–43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0501-34">10.1038/scientificamerican0501-34</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.umd.edu/~golbeck/LBSC690/SemanticWeb.html">the original</a> on April 24, 2013.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBakkeygstad2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bakke, Sturla; ygstad, Bendik (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aisel.aisnet.org/confirm2009/28">"Two emerging technologies: a comparative analysis of Web 2.0 and the Semantic Web"</a>. CONF-IRM 2009 Proceedings (28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170906040756/http://aisel.aisnet.org/confirm2009/28/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-06. Retrieved 2017-09-05. <q>Our research question is: how do we explain the surprising success of Web 2.0 and the equally surprising non-fulfillment of the Semantic Web. Building on a case study approach we conducted a in depth comparative analysis of the two emerging technologies. We propose two conclusions. First, traditional top-down management of an emerging global technology has proved not to be effective in the case of the Semantic Web and Web 2.0, and second, the success for such global technologies is mainly associated with bootstrapping an already installed base.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGrimes2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Grimes, Seth (7 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.informationweek.com/software/information-management/semantic-web-business-going-nowhere-slowly/d/d-id/1113323">"Semantic Web business: going nowhere slowly"</a>. <a href="InformationWeek" title="InformationWeek">InformationWeek</a>. Retrieved 5 September 2017. <q>SemWeb is a narrowly purposed replica of a subset of the World Wide Web. It's useful for information enrichment in certain domains, via a circumscribed set of tools. However, the SemWeb offers a vanishingly small benefit to the vast majority of businesses. The vision persists but is unachievable; the business reality of SemWeb is going pretty much nowhere.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCagle2016" class="citation web cs1">Cagle, Kurt (3 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-semantic-web-has-failed-kurt-cagle">"Why the Semantic Web has failed"</a>. <a href="LinkedIn" title="LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119084025/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-semantic-web-has-failed-kurt-cagle">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2017. <q>This may sound like heresy, but my personal belief is that the semantic web has failed. Not in "just give it a few more years and it'll catch on" or "it's just a matter of tooling and editors". No, I'd argue that, as admirable as the whole goal of the semantic web is, it's just not working in reality.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZaino2014" class="citation news cs1">Zaino, Jennifer (23 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dataversity.net/semantic-webs-rocking-aint-stopping-now/">"The Semantic Web's rocking, and there ain't no stopping it now"</a>. Dataversity. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170905232820/http://www.dataversity.net/semantic-webs-rocking-aint-stopping-now/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017. <q>Make no mistake about it: The semantic web has been a success and that's not about to stop now. That was essentially the message delivered by W3C Data Activity Lead Phil Archer, during his keynote address celebrating the semantic web's ten years of achievement at last month's Semantic Technology & Business Conference in San Jose.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-PaulinandSuneson2011-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PaulinandSuneson2011_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaulinandSuneson2011_63-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPaulinSuneson2011" class="citation web cs1">Paulin, Dan Theodor; Suneson, K (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286105137">"Knowledge Transfer, Knowledge Sharing and Knowledge Barriers-Three Blurry Terms in KM"</a>. Retrieved May 8, 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDalkir2005" class="citation book cs1">Dalkir, Kimiz (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080547367">Knowledge management in theory and practice</a>. pp. 221, 276–289. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780080547367">10.4324/9780080547367</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781136389757</bdi>. Retrieved May 1, 2022.</cite>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Knowledge_management77" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Knowledge_management77" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Intellectual_capital" title="Intellectual capital">Intellectual capital</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_services" title="Knowledge intensive services">Knowledge intensive services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_intensive_business_services" title="Knowledge intensive business services">Knowledge intensive business services</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_organization_(management)" title="Knowledge organization (management)">Knowledge organization (management)</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_enterprise" title="Knowledge enterprise">Knowledge-intensive company</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_sharing" title="Knowledge sharing">Knowledge sharing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_management_software" title="Knowledge management software">Knowledge management software</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_content_management" title="Enterprise content management">Enterprise content management</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiki_software" title="Wiki software">Wiki software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">Tacit knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_knowledge_management" title="Personal knowledge management">Personal knowledge management</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_rationale" title="Design rationale">Design rationale</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Chief_knowledge_officer" title="Chief knowledge officer">Chief knowledge officer</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_team" title="Virtual team">Virtual team</a></li>

<li><a href="Communities_of_innovation" title="Communities of innovation">Communities of innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community of practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_of_interest" title="Community of interest">Community of interest</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Journal_of_Knowledge_Management" title="Journal of Knowledge Management">Journal of Knowledge Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_Management_Research_%26_Practice" title="Knowledge Management Research & Practice">Knowledge Management Research & Practice</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Management363" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Management363" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Management" title="Management">Management</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_management" title="Outline of management">Outline of management</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_management_articles" title="Index of management articles">Index of management articles</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By type of organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_administration" title="Academic administration">Academic</a></li>

<li>Association</li>

<li><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business</a>

<ul><li><a href="Restaurant_management" title="Restaurant management">Restaurant</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Court_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Court management">Court</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_administration" title="Health administration">Healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_administration" title="Military administration">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public</a></li>

<li><a href="Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By focus, within an organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a> (top-level)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Capability_management" title="Capability management">Capability</a></li>

<li><a href="Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital</a></li>

<li><a href="Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a></li>

<li><a href="Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li>

<li><a href="Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">Innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On component</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Facility_management" title="Facility management">Facility</a></li>

<li><a href="Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a>

<ul><li><a href="Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">Product lifecycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a>

<ul><li><a href="Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Program_management" title="Program management">Program</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On activity or department managed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Line_management" title="Line management">Line</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>/<a href="Manufacturing_process_management" title="Manufacturing process management">production</a>

<ul><li><a href="Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Staff_management" title="Staff management">Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accounting_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting management">Accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li>

<li><a href="Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On aspect or relationship</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception_management" title="Perception management">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li>

<li><a href="Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On problem</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Resource_management" title="Resource management">On resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">Environmental resource</a></li>

<li><a href="Field_inventory_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Field inventory management">Field inventory</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resources</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_management" title="Information management">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_technology_management" title="Information technology management">Information technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li>

<li><a href="Skills_management" title="Skills management">Skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interim_management" title="Interim management">Interim</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_management" title="Middle management">Middle</a></li>

<li><a href="Senior_management" title="Senior management">Senior</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Methods, approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Collaborative_method" title="Collaborative method">Collaborative method</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li>

<li><a href="Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value management</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li>

<li><a href="Full_range_leadership_model" title="Full range leadership model">Full range leadership model</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_by_objectives" title="Management by objectives">Management by objectives</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_style" title="Management style">Management style</a></li>

<li><a href="Macromanagement" title="Macromanagement">Macromanagement</a></li>

<li><a href="Micromanagement" title="Micromanagement">Micromanagement</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_entrepreneurship" title="Social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></li>

<li><a href="Team_building" title="Team building">Team building</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_management" title="Virtual management">Virtual management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Skills, activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>

<li><a href="Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Leadership" title="Leadership">Leadership</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Pioneers, scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a></li>

<li><a href="Eliyahu_M._Goldratt" title="Eliyahu M. Goldratt">Eliyahu M. Goldratt</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_school" title="Business school">Business school</a></li>

<li><a href="Certified_Business_Manager" title="Certified Business Manager">Certified Business Manager</a></li>

<li><a href="Chartered_Management_Institute" title="Chartered Management Institute">Chartered Management Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_management_studies" title="Critical management studies">Critical management studies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Degrees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Business_Administration" title="Bachelor of Business Administration">Bachelor of Business Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">Master of Business Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="PhD_in_management" title="PhD in management">PhD in management</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Business_Administration" title="Doctor of Business Administration">Doctor of Business Administration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Collaboration" title="Collaboration">Collaboration</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_compensation" title="Executive compensation">Executive compensation</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">Management consulting</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_(management)" title="Control (management)">Management control</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_development" title="Management development">Management development</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_fad" title="Management fad">Management fad</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_system" title="Management system">Management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Managerial_psychology" title="Managerial psychology">Managerial psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Managerialism" title="Managerialism">Managerialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Organization_development" title="Organization development">Organization development</a></li>

<li><a href="Organizational_behavior_management" title="Organizational behavior management">Organizational behavior management</a></li>

<li><a href="Pointy-haired_Boss" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointy-haired Boss">Pointy-haired Boss</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <a href="Portal%3ASystems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semantic_Web71" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semantic_Web71" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Databases</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic networks</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dataspaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Dataspaces">Dataspaces</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperdata" title="Hyperdata">Hyperdata</a></li>

<li><a href="Linked_data" title="Linked data">Linked data</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">Rule-based systems</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_analytics" title="Semantic analytics">Semantic analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_computing" title="Semantic computing">Semantic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_mapper" title="Semantic mapper">Semantic mapper</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Semantic matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_publishing" title="Semantic publishing">Semantic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_reasoner" title="Semantic reasoner">Semantic reasoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_search" title="Semantic search">Semantic search</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_service-oriented_architecture" title="Semantic service-oriented architecture">Semantic service-oriented architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_wiki" title="Semantic wiki">Semantic wiki</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_(web_decentralization_project)" title="Solid (web decentralization project)">Solid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Description_logic" title="Description logic">Description logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">Folksonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Geotagging" title="Geotagging">Geotagging</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_architecture" title="Information architecture">Information architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="IXBRL" class="mw-redirect" title="IXBRL">iXBRL</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_extraction" title="Knowledge extraction">Knowledge extraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_2.0" title="Library 2.0">Library 2.0</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference_(computer_science)" title="Reference (computer science)">References</a></li>

<li><a href="Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_Science_Trust" title="Web Science Trust">Web Science Trust</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syntax and supporting technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Semantic_triple" title="Semantic triple">triples</a></li>

<li><a href="Turtle_(syntax)" title="Turtle (syntax)">Turtle</a></li>

<li><a href="Notation3" title="Notation3">Notation3</a></li>

<li><a href="N-Triples" title="N-Triples">N-Triples</a></li>

<li><a href="TriX_(serialization_format)" title="TriX (serialization format)">TriX</a> (no W3C standard)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="SPARQL" title="SPARQL">SPARQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_HTML" title="Semantic HTML">Semantic HTML</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schemas, ontologies and rules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Common_Logic" title="Common Logic">Common Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Rule_Interchange_Format" title="Rule Interchange Format">Rule Interchange Format</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web_Rule_Language" title="Semantic Web Rule Language">Semantic Web Rule Language</a></li>

<li><a href="SHACL" title="SHACL">SHACL</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semantic annotation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="COinS" title="COinS">COinS</a></li>

<li><a href="GRDDL" title="GRDDL">GRDDL</a></li>

<li><a href="Microdata_(HTML)" title="Microdata (HTML)">Microdata</a></li>

<li><a href="Microformat" title="Microformat">Microformats</a></li>

<li><a href="SAWSDL" title="SAWSDL">SAWSDL</a></li>

<li><a href="Facebook_Platform" title="Facebook Platform">Facebook Platform</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="BIBFRAME" title="BIBFRAME">BIBFRAME</a></li>

<li><a href="Dublin_Core" title="Dublin Core">Dublin Core</a></li>

<li><a href="Schema.org" title="Schema.org">Schema.org</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microformat vocabularies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="HAtom" title="HAtom">hAtom</a></li>

<li><a href="HCalendar" title="HCalendar">hCalendar</a></li>

<li><a href="HCard" title="HCard">hCard</a></li>

<li><a href="HProduct" title="HProduct">hProduct</a></li>

<li><a href="HRecipe" title="HRecipe">hRecipe</a></li>

<li><a href="HReview" title="HReview">hReview</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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